Which court has the final say and cannot be appealed after the decision is made?

Answers

Answer 1
The Supreme Court cannot be appealed after the decision is made.
Answer 2

Answer:

The Supreme Court

What is the Supreme Court?

The highest court of the U.S  (In some states, a court of general jurisdiction subordinate to an appeals court).

Supreme Court is one of the country's most important institutions, with the power to overrule laws passed by the federal government and the states.

The supreme court is the head of the judicial branch and it's main purpose it to make sure that all decisions made are constitutional.

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Related Questions

Look at the locations of four modern cites on lndain subcontinent what do these have in commmon

Answers

Howdy,

The common features between the modern cities on the Indian subcontinent and Ancient Indian civilizations is that both are located along water sources.

What could a county in georgia pay for with money raised by a special
purpose local-option sales tax?
o a. add a tourism advertising campaign
ob. hire additional police officers
o c. improvements to a local park
o d. increase the salaries of city councilors

Answers

option D is correct. If a county in Georgia raises money through a special O.D. (occupational tax district), they could potentially use the funds for various purposes, such as improving infrastructure, enhancing public services, investing in education, and supporting economic development initiatives.

However, it is unlikely that the money would be used to increase the salaries of city councilors. The purpose of a special O.D. is to generate revenue for specific community needs, not to benefit individual elected officials. Additionally, any decision to increase councilors' salaries would need to be made by the city council itself, rather than being funded through a special tax district. A Special Purpose Local Option Sales Tax (SPLOST) is a funding mechanism in Georgia that allows counties to raise money for specific capital improvement projects through an additional sales tax. If a county decides to increase the salaries of city councilors, they can propose a SPLOST tax for this purpose. The proposal would then go to a public vote, and if approved, the collected revenue would be used to fund the salary increase. By using SPLOST, the county can efficiently raise funds without burdening the general budget or relying on property taxes.

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Why is a multimedia presentation a good choice for introducing a proposal to a city council?

It can be viewed again at a later date.
It can take the place of a written document.
It can include jokes and be entertaining.
It can help persuade city officials to agree.

Answers

The reason a multimedia presentation is a good choice for introducing a proposal to a city council is because: D. It can help persuade city officials to agree.

What is a presentation?

A presentation simply refers to an act that involves the process through which a presenter speaks to an audience (listeners), so as to formally share and explain an idea, product, opinion, piece of work, message (information), subject matter (topic), proposal, or project, especially through the use of multimedia.

This ultimately implies that, the main purpose of presentation accompanied with the use of multimedia is to enlighten, persuade, or demonstrate how to proffer a solution to a particular problem.

In this context, we can reasonably infer and logically deduce that a multimedia presentation would help persuade city officials to agree with the proposal.

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what kinds of jobs did people in West African kingdoms do?

Answers

Answer:

farmers, traders, artisans, warriors, slaves.

Explanation:

what was the purpose of the invasion of normandy?

to demoralize japanese citizens

to capture the german capital of berlin

to remove the german army away from northern france

to push back the japanese army from the south pacific

Answers

C because the allies did not want the nazis in France and wanted to push them back to gain control


‼️‼️CAN YALL HELP ME WITH THIS PLZZZ I GOT LIKE 5 MINUTES TO ANSWER‼️‼️



In 3-5 sentences tell me what the Blaxploitation era in entertainment is and why it began, ALSO’LY, answer one of these: 1) Why did it end? 2) Why have they said this genre never died?

Answers

Blaxploitation or blacksploitation is an ethnic subgenre of the exploitation film that emerged in the United States during the early 1970s. The films, while popular, suffered backlash for disproportionate numbers of stereotypical film characters showing bad or questionable motives, including most roles as criminals resisting arrest. However, the genre does rank among the first in which black characters and communities are the heroes and subjects of film and television, rather than sidekicks, villains, or victims of brutality.[1] The genre's inception coincides with the rethinking of race relations in the 1970s.

Please Help! its due monday! 30 points!
11. What were the names of the three ships given to Columbus by the Spanish King and Queen
(Answer A), and on which one did he sail (Answer B)?
a.
b.
12. According to the text, why did Columbus call the people he encounterd on his first voyage
“Indians”?
a.
13. Look at the map on page 40 of you’r textbook. If you were to follow the journeys of Amerigo
Vespucci, what continent do you think he explored the most?
a.
14. Who was the first European to Circumnavigate, or sail around, the world?
a.
15. The Spanish Conquistadors were successful in conquering both the Aztec Empire in Mexico and
the Incan Empire in South America. Please give, and explain, the three reasons they were able
to do this, according to the text.
a.
b.
c.

Answers

Answer:

12. Santa Maria

13. Columbus called all the people he met in the islands 'Indians', because he was sure that he had reached the Indies. This initial encounter opened up the 'New World' to European colonization, which would come to have a devastating impact on indigenous populations.

14. Ferdinand Magellan

15. The Spanish conquered the great Aztec and Inca empires by bringing diseases to kill most of them off quickly, scaring them with the horses, and using their more advanced superior weapons to kill them.

In the late 1960s, what small union of farmworkers was founded?

Answers

National farm works association

Answer:

United Farm Workers (UFW), in full United Farm Workers of America, formerly National Farm Workers Association, U.S. labour union founded in 1962 as the National Farm Workers Association by the labour leaders and activists Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta.

"It is not enough to have expelled the barbarians who have bloodied our land for two centuries; it is not enough to have restrained those ever-evolving factions that one after another mocked the specter of liberty that France dangled before you. We must, with one last act of national authority, forever assure the empire of liberty in the country of our birth; we must take any hope of re-enslaving us away from the inhuman government that for so long kept us in the most humiliating torpor. In the end we must live independent or die... What! Victims of our [own] credulity* and indulgence for 14 years; defeated not by French armies, but by the pathetic eloquence of their agents' proclamations; when will we tire of breathing the air that they breathe? What do we have in common with this nation of executioners? The difference between its cruelty and our patient moderation, its color and ours, the great seas that separate us, our avenging climate, all tell us plainly that they are not our brothers, that they never will be, and that if they fınd refuge among us, they will plot again to trouble and divide us." *Credulity is a tendency to believe too readily that something is true Source: The Haitian Declaration of Independence, 1804
4. The passage supports which of the following developments from c. 1750 to c. 1900?
a. The increase and intensifıcation of interactions between Europe and America contributed to religious conflicts b. Political and religious disputes led to rivalries and conflicts between states c. The American Revolution became a model and inspiration for a number of revolutions that followed d. Totalitarian states repressed basic freedoms and dominated many aspects of daily life during the course of conflicts

Answers

Jean-Jacques Dessalines issued the Haitian Declaration of Independence on January 1, 1804 in the port city of Gonaves, effectively ending the 13-year Haitian Revolution.

The declaration made Haiti the first independent country in Latin America and only the second in the Americas after the United States.

Notably, the Haitian declaration of independence marked the end of history's only successful slave revolution.

There are only two copies of the original printed version. Julia Gaffield, a postgraduate student at Duke University, discovered both of these in the UK National Archives in 2010 and 2011. They are currently housed at The National Archives, Kew.

The declaration is divided into three sections. . It has only one signatory, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the senior general and a former slave.

Due to Dessalines' illiteracy and inability to communicate in French, his secretary Louis Boisrond-Tonnerre read out the proclamation, followed by the act of independence, both of which he wrote.

Dessalines later delivered an independence day speech in Haitian Creole in which he denounced France.

The declaration specifically calls for vengeance against the French White Creoles, who committed atrocities against the African-Haitian population.

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Analyze the changes and continuities in the lives of African Americans during the 19th century.

Answers

Nearly four million slaves were released as a result of the Union victory in the Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution (1865). Allowed African Americans the right to vote, while the and secured their citizenship.

What was living like for African Americans in the nineteenth century?

They resided in the city's poorest and most unhealthy districts, were forbidden from any work save menial labour, and were often harassed by white mobs.

Throughout the nineteenth century, states that had allowed free black residents to vote restricted voting rights to white men.

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a major weakness of spain in the spanish-american war was a. the lack of support from its european allies. b. the wretched condition of its navy. c. its very small army in cuba. d. its unpreparedness to fight in a tropical climate. e. its inability to wage guerilla war.

Answers

On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, bringing the war to an end.As a result, Spain lost control of the remaining islands of its overseas empire, including Guam, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.

How was the Spanish-American War fought?

The peace treaty that resulted from the United States' victory in the war forced the Spanish to give up their claims to Cuba and give up their sovereignty over Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States.The US likewise added the autonomous province of Hawaii during the contention.

The Spanish-American War resulted in which of the following?

The United States of America gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines as territories as a result of the war.

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PLEASE HELP GIVING BRAINLIEST!!

9
17
10
16
8
15
11
2
14
Median line
Ventral surface of trunk
Dorsal surface of trunk
Anterior surface of head
Lateral surface of head
Superior portion of ear
Inferior surface of ear
Anterior surface of arm
Posterior surface of arm
Lateral surface of arm
Medial surface of arm
Proximal portion of hand
Distal portion of hand
Lateral surface of leg
_Medial surface of leg
Superior surface of foot
Inferior surface of foot
6
al
3
13
Figure 5
12
3
3

PLEASE HELP GIVING BRAINLIEST!!917101681511214Median lineVentral surface of trunkDorsal surface of trunkAnterior

Answers

Answer:

1 Median line

15 Ventral surface of trunk

7 Dorsal surface of trunk

17 Anterior surface of head

16 Lateral surface of head

9 Superior portion if ear

10 Inferior surface of ear

14 Anterior surface of arm

2 Posterior surface of arm

8 Lateral surface of arm

14 Medial surface of arm

6 Proximal surface of hand

5 Distal portion of hand

4 Lateral surface of leg

3 Medial surface of leg

13 Superior surface of foot

12 Inferior surface of

Explanation:

Hypothetical lines, axis and sections are drawn to transect the body of an organism that describes the location of the bodily structures.

The correct labeling for the markings in the figure are:

1 Median line

2 Posterior surface of the arm

3 Medial surface of the leg

4 Lateral surface of the leg

5 Distal portion of the hand

6 Proximal surface of the hand

7 Dorsal surface of the trunk

8 Lateral surface of the arm

9 Superior portion of the ear

10 Inferior surface of the ear

11 Medial surface of the arm

12 Inferior surface of foot

13 Superior surface of foot

14 Anterior surface of the arm

15 Ventral surface of the trunk

16 Lateral surface of the head

17 Anterior surface of the head

The commonly used planes for describing the position of the body structures and movements are median, frontal and transverse.

It helps in describing the parts for study purposes.

The body planes, axis and sections divide the body into ventral, dorsal, lateral, posterior, anterior, superior, inferior, distal etc.

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Why was the zimmerman telegram a turning point in many us citizens' attitude about entering the war?

Answers

Zimmerman telegram was a turning point in many U.S. citizens' attitude about entering the war because its contains that Germany would cede United States territory to Mexico if Mexico cooperated with the German military..

What was the Zimmerman telegram?

It was an transmitted message that contains a secret diplomatic writing which was intended by Germany to form an alliance with Mexico.

Prior to the war, the U.S. States intended to fight against the Germans during the first world War and the Germans intended to form an alliance with Mexico if the US engaged against them.

Hence, because the telegram message contains an agreement made by Germany to cede US territories to Mexico if they cooperate, it became the turning point in which many U.S. citizens' attitude about entering the war began.

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the goal of the sncc was to defeat white ___ and to obtain ___.

Answers

The goal of the SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) was to defeat white segregationists and to obtain civil rights and equality for African Americans.

The SNCC was a prominent organization during the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. Founded in 1960, the SNCC aimed to combat racial segregation and discrimination through nonviolent means. Their primary focus was on mobilizing young African American students to challenge the oppressive systems in place.

The SNCC's objective was to dismantle the social, political, and economic structures that enforced racial inequality. They actively participated in voter registration drives, sit-ins, freedom rides, and other forms of nonviolent protests to challenge segregationist policies and practices. Their work was instrumental in raising awareness about systemic racism and advocating for civil rights legislation.

The SNCC played a crucial role in organizing grassroots movements and empowering local communities to demand equal rights and opportunities. They worked alongside other civil rights organizations, such as the NAACP and CORE, to challenge segregationist policies and advocate for voting rights, desegregation, and equal access to education, employment, and public facilities.

In conclusion, the goal of the SNCC was to defeat white segregationists and to obtain civil rights and equality for African Americans. Their tireless efforts and commitment to nonviolent direct action were instrumental in shaping the Civil Rights Movement and advancing the cause of racial justice in the United States.

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Identify and explain three of the key important sites of the city-state of Athens.

Answers

Answer:

Athens consisted of two distinct parts: The City, properly so called, divided into The Upper City or Acropolis, and The Lower City, surrounded with walls by Themistocles.

Explanation:

Athens was the largest and most influential of the Greek city-states. It had many fine buildings and was named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom and warfare. The Athenians invented democracy, a new type of government where every citizen could vote on important issues, such as whether or not to declare war.

The City, as it was officially known, was split between The Upper City, or the Acropolis, and The Lower City, which Themistocles walled in.

What is the city-state Athens most known for?

The concept that every person should have a say in societal decision-making and democracy are both credited to Athens as its origin. Additionally, Athens is home to numerous historic sites built during the Classical era, including temples and theaters. Many important ideas originated in the city-state of Athens. Ancient Athenians were intellectual individuals who cherished the methodical study of a variety of topics, including history, philosophy, and science, to mention a few.

The humanities—especially the arts, architecture, and literature—were highly valued in Athens. The city is home to several famous buildings, including the Temple of the Olympian Zeus and the Acropolis, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Greek mythology states that Cecrops, a king, constructed the Phoenician city that would become the first Athens.

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Many Americans opposed Alexander Hamilton's proposal to have the national government assume the debts owed by
the states because:
most congressmen did not want speculators to gain profits from the scheme
the Republicans feared that the national government would get too bureaucratic
states that had already paid a large proportion of their debts would have to help pay the debts of other states
all of the above

Answers

Answer:

The answer is C! Hope I helped!

Answer: the answer is C!!

Explanation:

hope this helps!!

please help me I don't undertand​

please help me I don't undertand

Answers

Answer:

option 4

Explanation:

A claim is not a fact, just something that someone is trying to prove.

The answer for your question is 4 / D! Its hard for me to explain, so I apologize!

The racial profiling and perceived unjustified shooting of african americans by police has been epitomized by?

Answers

The racial profiling and perceived unjustified shooting of African Americans by police has been epitomized by the kneeling of athletes during national anthem.

Racism is an entrenched problem in the United States, not the least as a legacy of the practice of slavery. This has led to frequent racial attacks and discrimination against people of color, including African Americans.

One manifestation of this is racial profiling, which is the tendency to linked people of particular ethnic and racial backgrounds as prone to commit crimes. The unjustified shooting of African Americans has been a result of this attitude.

Kneeling on one knee when the US national anthem is being played is one in which American athletes have been protesting against these injustices. Opinions are divided. Some dismiss these as unpatriotic acts and disrespectful, while others have praised the effect of these forms of protests and see it as patriotic.  

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11. Which of the following statements does NOT describe the way the Vietnam war was fought? a. The Vietcong were able to get food and information about American troop movement from peasants.
b. The Vietcong used guerrilla tactics.
c. The United States used intense air bombing. d. There were many large, clearly defined battles.

PS it's not A!​

Answers

Option D. The statement that does not describe the way the Vietnam war was fought is There were many large, clearly defined battles.

How was the Vietnam war fought

This statement does NOT describe the way the Vietnam War was fought. In fact, one of the defining characteristics of the Vietnam War was the lack of large, clearly defined battles.

Instead, the conflict was characterized by guerrilla warfare, hit-and-run tactics, and ambushes. The Vietcong were able to blend in with the civilian population and launch surprise attacks on American troops, making it difficult for the United States to achieve a clear victory.

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Where did some of the paints and materials come from to create the Book of Kells

I’ll give brainliest. Pls help

Answers

Answer:

Afghanistan

 

hope it helps.......

In Afghanistan, did some paints and materials come from to create the Book of Kells. Thus, option (c) is correct.

What is Book?

The term book refers to the bunch of the pages. The book is the collection of the different pages. The book is the help to the gaining the knowledge. The book is the read the words, and the different chapters are the involved.

According to the Book of Kells, it was made for show and ceremonial purposes only, not to be read aloud. The reason for this is the rich and detailed graphics, while the language in the Book of Kells is hastily reproduced, with full words lacking or duplicated texts included in the Afghanistan involved.

As a result, the Afghanistan, did some paints and materials to come from to create the Book of Kells. Therefore, option (c) is correct.

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Your question is incomplete, but most probably the full question was.

a. Peru b. Kenya c. Afghanistan d. Somalia

Identify and explain any THREE (3) differences between the Samurai culture and the

modernized culture that is being introduced at this time period.

Answers

Answer:

The Samurai culture and the modernized culture introduced during that time period are vastly different. Here are three key differences:

Social Structure: The Samurai culture was based on a rigid social structure, where each person's role was clearly defined. The Samurai were at the top of this hierarchy and were respected for their martial skills and honor code. The modernized culture, on the other hand, was more egalitarian, with less emphasis on social status and more on individual achievement.

Education: In Samurai culture, education focused on military training and developing martial skills, while modernized education focused on science, technology, and other academic subjects. Samurai education was often limited to the elite class, while modernized education was more widely available to the general population.

Values: The Samurai culture placed great emphasis on honor, loyalty, and duty, and Samurai were expected to follow a strict code of conduct. The modernized culture, on the other hand, placed more emphasis on individualism, progress, and material wealth. The Samurai were willing to die for their beliefs, while modernized culture placed a higher value on personal safety and self-preservation.

Overall, the Samurai culture was based on a traditional, hierarchical social structure, with a focus on martial training and honor. Modernized culture, on the other hand, emphasized individualism, progress, and academic education, and placed less emphasis on rigid social hierarchies and honor codes.

NEED HELP ASAP!!!!!! YOU WILL GET BRAINLIST!!!!!! AND 100 POINTS!!!!!!!!!!

TASK: Read and annotate the documents below to complete the chart.


DOCUMENT #1 - Thomas Jefferson, Letter to John C. Breckinridge, August 12, 1803

"It is the case of a guardian, investing the money of his ward in purchasing an important adjacent territory; and saying to him when of age, I did this for your own good."

Glossary:

Ward = child

Adjacent = next to

DOCUMENT

What is the author saying?

(PURPOSE)

Does this document support the Louisiana Purchase?Why?

(YES OR NO)

EVIDENCE FROM TEXT

#1 - Jefferson Letter

(Primary Source)


DOCUMENT #2 - Eric Foner, Give Me Liberty [Modified]

The greatest achievement of Thomas Jefferson’s presidency involved his greatest achievement the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 … to take advantage of the sudden opportunity to purchase Louisiana, Jefferson had to abandon his conviction that the federal government was limited to powers specifically mentioned in the Constitution, because the document said nothing about buying territory from a foreign power.

… The cost $15 Million (the equivalent of perhaps $250 million in today’s money), made the Louisiana Purchase on of history’s greatest real estate bargains.

In a stroke, Jefferson had doubled the size of the United States and ended the French presence in North America. Jefferson admitted that he had “done an act beyond the Constitution.” But, he believed the benefits justified his transgression. Farmers, Jefferson had written, were the “chosen people of God” … Now Jefferson believed he had ensured the farmers of the United States political stability for centuries to come.

GLOSSARY:

Conviction = firm belief

Transgression = going against a rule or law

DOCUMENT

What is the author saying?

(PURPOSE)

Does this document support the Louisiana Purchase?Why?

(YES OR NO)

EVIDENCE FROM TEXT

#2 - Give Me Liberty Excerpt, Eric Foner

(Secondary Source)


DOCUMENT #3 - Representative Roger Griswold, one of the finest Federalist spokesman in the House, gave an anti- Louisiana speech in 1803. [Modified]

The incorporation of a foreign nation into the Union … destroys the perfect union contemplated between the original parties, by interposing an alien and a stranger to share the powers of government with them . . .

… The vast and unmanageable extent which the accession of Louisiana will give to the United States; the consequent dispersion of our population; and the destruction of that balance which it is so important to maintain between the Eastern and Western states, threatens, at no very distant day, the subversion of our Union.

GLOSSARY:

Contemplate = debate / think about

Interpose = putting between

Vast = large

Accession = addition

Consequent = result / effect

Dispersion = distribute

Subversion = power

#3 - Roger Griswold 1803 Speech (Primary Source)

what is the author saying?

(PUROPSE)

Does this document support the Louisiana Purchase?Why?

(YES OR NO)

EVIDENCE FROM TEXT

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NEED HELP ASAP!!!!!! YOU WILL GET BRAINLIST!!!!!! AND 100 POINTS!!!!!!!!!!TASK: Read and annotate the
NEED HELP ASAP!!!!!! YOU WILL GET BRAINLIST!!!!!! AND 100 POINTS!!!!!!!!!!TASK: Read and annotate the

Answers

Answer:yea

Explanation:

What is the purpose of checks and balances?

Answers

Answer:

Checks and balances are a principle of government in which each different branch of government can make sure one branch does not get too powerful through a system in which they check their actions.

Explanation:

Hope it works!!!!

Why did the ship building industry thrive in new England?

Answers

because the ships built in the colonies were cheaper than those built in the mainland.

Help me answer this question in the best way possible with a good explanation and full sentences!

Should the electoral college exists?

Answers

It is beneficial since it demonstrates what the majority of the country truly desires rather than some popular vote. Furthermore, the electoral college allows residents in remote regions to hear the candidates' campaigns. Minorities will benefit from this as well.

What is the Electoral College in the United States?

The United States Electoral College is a body of presidential electors mandated by the Constitution to meet every four years to pick the nation's president and vice president.

Each state, together with the District of Columbia, appoints electors in proportion to the size of its congressional delegation, according to the processes prescribed by their respective legislatures (representatives and senators). Members of Congress, including senators and representatives, are not allowed to vote in the Electoral College. The president and vice president must be elected with an absolute majority of 270 electoral votes or more from the existing 538 electors.

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How Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801?

Answers

The incorporation of Ireland into the United Kingdom in 1801 was the result of the Acts of Union. Prior to 1801, Ireland had been a separate kingdom under British control, but it had its own parliament in Dublin.

The Acts of Union aimed to merge Ireland with Great Britain and create a unified political entity.b The process began with negotiations and discussions between British and Irish politicians. The Act of Union was passed by both the Irish Parliament and the British Parliament, and it received royal assent in 1800.

The Act stipulated that the Kingdom of Ireland would cease to exist, and instead, Ireland would be joined with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The incorporation of Ireland into the United Kingdom had several motivations. From the British perspective, it aimed to strengthen their control over Ireland, as there had been a history of tensions and conflicts between the two nations.

The Act of Union was also influenced by the desire for economic integration and political stability. However, the Act of Union was met with resistance in Ireland. Some Irish nationalists opposed the merger, viewing it as a loss of Irish identity and autonomy. There were protests and uprisings, such as the 1798 Irish Rebellion, which highlighted the opposition to British rule.

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I already know this but do you know about the black plague

Answers

DescriptionThe Black Death was the deadliest pandemic recorded in human history. The Black Death resulted in the deaths of up to 75–200 million people in Eurasia and North Africa, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351.

I know this is isn’t history but help someone

I know this is isnt history but help someone

Answers

Answer:

w=110

Explanation:

w=110

hope it helps you.

which of the following statements about the byzantine period is true?which of the following statements about the byzantine period is true?hagia sophia became a symbol of the strength of constantine the great.christianity was tolerated throughout the history of the roman empire.the edict of milan extended the persecution of christians.both early christian and byzantine artwork had subject matter that predominately focused on religious subjects in a stylized manner. quizlket

Answers

Answer:

Both early Christian and Byzantine artwork had subject matter that predominately focused on religious subjects in a stylized manner

Explanation:

Early Christian art, which emerged during the Roman Empire, focused heavily on religious subjects such as biblical scenes and depictions of saints. Byzantine art, which developed during the Byzantine period (4th to 15th century), continued this tradition and also included subjects such as the Emperor and his family, as well as religious icons and mosaics. The style of both early Christian and Byzantine art is characterized by a highly stylized and symbolic representation of figures, with an emphasis on gold and vibrant colors, and an avoidance of realism in favor of spiritual or symbolic meaning.

14
Case Study: The Kennewick Man
The most contentious case in the history of NAGPRA, and one of the stimuli in moving this legislation forward was the case of the Kennewick Man. In 1996, human skeletal remains were found by canoers along the bank of the Columbia River in Kennewick, WA. Upon further inspection this skeleton, dubbed Kennewick Man, turned out to be 8,400 years old and at the time was one of the most complete skeletons ever found in North America. The primary basis of these results were radiometric tests to determine the age and the inspection of the skeleton by several trained osteologists. Once Kennewick’s age and origins were discovered, scientists immediately recognized the significance of these remains to understanding the peopling of the Americas by over the last 13,000 years.
Almost as soon as Kennewick Man was discovered to be an early American, the Columbia River Basin Indian tribes also recognized that this individual was likely a distant relative and, therefore, could be repatriated (returned) under NAGPRA. The primary basis of their case was oral history of the peopling of this area and long-term residence of contemporary tribes which indicated he was a direct tribal ancestor. The problem? Under NAGPRA "cultural affiliation" is usually determined using burial goods, burial style, and other "archaeological" (read "scientific") markers of culture. Oral history is not considered evidence of cultural affiliation.
Thus was born the ethical and legal dilemma:
Under NAGPRA the remains did not have to be legally returned.
Scientists working on the remains argued the following:
To repatriate unaffiliated remains would be unethical as Native Americans are not monolithic and contemporary groups’ burial practices aren’t identical to their early ancestors; in other words, Columbia River Basin tribal burial practices are different today than they were 8,000 or more years ago.
From the standpoint of beneficence, these remains belonged to all of humanity not just these descendants. To rebury these remains without studying them could set research on early diseases, ways of life, etc. back centuries.
Tribal leaders working on getting the remains repatriated argued the following:
It would be unethical to keep remains unburied and in a museum given long-term cultural norms about the dead.
From the standpoint of nonmaleficence and autonomy, the tribal leaders noted that this ancestor had not consented to being studied (much like Henrietta Lacks in the 1950s) and this individual and the community would be harmed by not being able to decide the fate of Kennewick Man’s remains.
Over the decades Kennewick Man went from storage to research lab to storage and finally was placed in permanent storage in 2002. On February 17, 2017, more than twenty years after his remains were found, Kennewick Man’s skeleton was returned to the earth in a private, unmarked location. While the issue has technically been resolved, the ethical dilemmas from this scenario continue to inform the way researchers think about further research.

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Answer:

The case of the Kennewick Man highlights an ethical and legal dilemma that arose under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). The Columbia River Basin Indian tribes recognized Kennewick Man as a distant relative and wanted to repatriate the remains under NAGPRA, based on oral history and the belief that he was a direct tribal ancestor. However, under NAGPRA, "cultural affiliation" is usually determined using archaeological markers of culture, such as burial goods and burial style, rather than oral history.

Scientists working on the remains argued that to repatriate unaffiliated remains would be unethical, as it could set research on early diseases and ways of life back centuries. They also argued that the remains belonged to all of humanity and not just the descendants of the Columbia River Basin Indian tribes. On the other hand, tribal leaders argued that it would be unethical to keep the remains unburied and in a museum, given cultural norms about the dead. They also noted that this ancestor had not consented to being studied and that the community would be harmed by not being able to decide the fate of Kennewick Man's remains.

Ultimately, after more than 20 years of legal and ethical debates, Kennewick Man's skeleton was returned to the earth in a private, unmarked location in 2017. This case continues to inform the way researchers think about further research and the ethical implications of studying human remains.

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